|
Foreword
|
xxi
|
|
Preface and acknowledgments to the first edition
|
xxv
|
|
Preface and acknowledgments to the second edition
|
xxix
|
|
Preface and acknowledgments to the third edition
|
xxxi
|
|
Table of cases
|
xxxiii
|
|
Table of treaties and other international instruments
|
xxxvii
|
|
List of abbreviations
|
lxiii
|
|
Part I The legal and institutional framework
|
1
|
|
1 The environment and international society: issues, concepts and definitions
|
3
|
|
The environmental challenge
|
3
|
|
The basis for decision-making: science, economics and other values
|
5
|
|
Science
|
6
|
|
Economics
|
7
|
|
Other social objectives
|
8
|
|
Sustainable development
|
9
|
|
The international legal order
|
10
|
|
The functions of international law
|
10
|
|
Sovereignty and territory
|
11
|
|
International actors
|
13
|
|
The environment and international law: defining terms
|
13
|
|
Challenges for international environmental law
|
15
|
|
Further reading
|
16
|
|
International environmental law: texts, articles and history
|
16
|
|
Sources of international environmental law
|
18
|
|
Primary materials
|
18
|
|
International environmental jurisprudence
|
18
|
|
Journals
|
19
|
|
International law generally
|
19
|
|
International environmental law
|
19
|
|
International environmental co-operation and policy
|
19
|
|
Science and the state of the environment
|
20
|
|
Environmental economics and development
|
20
|
|
Websites
|
21
|
|
2 History
|
22
|
|
Introduction
|
22
|
|
From early fisheries conventions to the creation of the United Nations
|
23
|
|
From the creation of the United Nations to Stockholm: 1945–72
|
26
|
|
UNCCUR
|
27
|
|
The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
|
30
|
|
Stockholm follow-up
|
33
|
|
From Stockholm to Rio: 1972–92
|
34
|
|
Post-Stockholm: treaties and other international acts
|
34
|
|
1978 UNEP draft Principles
|
36
|
|
1981 Montevideo Programme
|
37
|
|
1982 World Charter for Nature
|
37
|
|
1980 World Conservation Strategy/1991 ‘Caring for the Earth’ Strategy
|
38
|
|
The Brundtland Report and the Report of the Legal Experts Group
|
39
|
|
Conclusions
|
40
|
|
UNCED
|
40
|
|
The Rio Declaration
|
42
|
|
Agenda 21
|
44
|
|
Beyond UNCED: trends and directions
|
45
|
|
World Summit on Sustainable Development
|
47
|
|
Conclusions
|
49
|
|
3 Governance: states, international organisations and non-state actors
|
50
|
|
Introduction
|
50
|
|
States
|
51
|
|
International organisations
|
52
|
|
Introduction
|
52
|
|
History of international organisational arrangements
|
53
|
|
UNCED
|
53
|
|
The function and role of international organisations
|
55
|
|
Global organisations
|
56
|
|
United Nations (www.un.org)
|
56
|
|
UN General Assembly
|
58
|
|
UN Environment Programme (www.unep.org)
|
60
|
|
UN Development Programme (www.undp.org)
|
62
|
|
International Law Commission (www.un.org/law/ilc)
|
63
|
|
UN Commission on Sustainable Development (www.un.org/esa/dsd/csd/csd_index.shtml)
|
63
|
|
Other subsidiary bodies established by the General Assembly
|
65
|
|
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
|
67
|
|
Security Council
|
69
|
|
Trusteeship Council
|
69
|
|
International Court of Justice (www.icj-cij.org)
|
70
|
|
United Nations specialised agencies and related organisations
|
70
|
|
Food and Agriculture Organization (www.fao.org)
|
70
|
|
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (www.unesco.org)
|
72
|
|
International Maritime Organization (www.imo.org)
|
72
|
|
International Labour Organization (www.imo.org)
|
73
|
|
World Meteorological Organization (www.wmo.int)
|
73
|
|
International Civil Aviation Organization (www.icao.int)
|
74
|
|
UN Industrial Development Organization (www.unido.org)
|
74
|
|
World Health Organization (www.who.int)
|
74
|
|
International Atomic Energy Agency (www.iaea.org)
|
75
|
|
World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and World Trade Organization
|
76
|
|
Co-operative arrangements
|
76
|
|
Other global institutions
|
77
|
|
Regional and sub-regional organisations
|
77
|
|
Europe and the OECD
|
77
|
|
Africa
|
81
|
|
Americas and the Caribbean
|
82
|
|
Asia Pacific
|
82
|
|
Organisations established by environmental treaties
|
83
|
|
Non-state actors
|
86
|
|
Scientific community
|
87
|
|
Environmental, health and developmental organisations
|
88
|
|
Legal groups
|
88
|
|
Corporate sector
|
89
|
|
Individuals and indigenous communities
|
90
|
|
The media
|
91
|
|
Conclusions
|
92
|
|
4 International law-making and regulation
|
94
|
|
Introduction
|
94
|
|
Treaties
|
96
|
|
Environmental treaties
|
98
|
|
The treaty-making process
|
98
|
|
The 1969 Vienna Convention and legal issues relating to treaties
|
99
|
|
Interpretation
|
100
|
|
Entry into force
|
102
|
|
Reservations and interpretative declarations
|
103
|
|
Relations between international agreements
|
105
|
|
Amendment
|
107
|
|
Other international acts
|
108
|
|
Acts of international organisations
|
108
|
|
Conference declarations and other acts
|
110
|
|
Customary international law
|
111
|
|
State practice
|
112
|
|
Opinio juris
|
114
|
|
Treaties and custom
|
115
|
|
Persistent objector
|
116
|
|
Regional custom
|
117
|
|
General principles of international law
|
117
|
|
Equity
|
119
|
|
Subsidiary sources
|
120
|
|
Introduction to regulatory approaches
|
121
|
|
Direct regulation
|
122
|
|
Environmental quality standards
|
122
|
|
Product standards
|
123
|
|
Emissions standards
|
123
|
|
Process standards
|
123
|
|
Economic instruments
|
124
|
|
Charges and taxes
|
126
|
|
Joint implementation and tradeable permits
|
127
|
|
Deposit-refund systems
|
128
|
|
Subsidies
|
128
|
|
Enforcement incentives
|
129
|
|
Liability and compensation for damage
|
129
|
|
Trade measures
|
129
|
|
Investment incentives
|
130
|
|
Environmental agreements
|
130
|
|
Consumer information incentives
|
131
|
|
Integrated pollution control and integrated environmental management
|
131
|
|
Conclusions
|
133
|
|
5 Compliance: implementation, enforcement, dispute settlement
|
135
|
|
Introduction
|
135
|
|
Implementation
|
138
|
|
National law
|
138
|
|
National compliance
|
139
|
|
Reporting
|
143
|
|
International enforcement
|
144
|
|
Enforcement by states
|
144
|
|
Damage to a state's own environment
|
145
|
|
Damage to the environment of another state
|
146
|
|
Damage to the environment in areas beyond national jurisdiction
|
146
|
|
Enforcement by international organisations
|
151
|
|
Enforcement by non-state actors
|
155
|
|
Enforcement in the national courts
|
155
|
|
International enforcement
|
157
|
|
International conflict resolution (settlement of disputes)
|
159
|
|
Introduction
|
159
|
|
Diplomatic means of dispute settlement
|
159
|
|
Negotiation and consultation
|
159
|
|
Mediation, conciliation, fact-finding and international institutions
|
161
|
|
Non-compliance procedures
|
163
|
|
Inspection procedures of multilateral development banks
|
167
|
|
NAFTA Commission on Environmental Cooperation
|
168
|
|
Legal means of dispute settlement
|
169
|
|
Arbitration
|
169
|
|
International courts
|
171
|
|
International Court of Justice
|
171
|
|
Contentious cases
|
172
|
|
Advisory opinions
|
174
|
|
Interim measures of protection
|
174
|
|
UNCLOS and ITLOS
|
175
|
|
WTO Dispute Settlement Body
|
177
|
|
European Court of Justice and Court of First Instance
|
179
|
|
Human rights courts
|
180
|
|
Conclusions
|
181
|
|
Part II Principles and rules establishing standards
|
185
|
|
6 General principles and rules
|
187
|
|
Introduction
|
187
|
|
Principles and rules
|
188
|
|
Sovereignty over natural resources and the responsibility not to cause damage to the environment of other states or to areas beyond national jurisdiction
|
190
|
|
Sovereign rights over natural resources
|
191
|
|
Sovereignty and extra-territoriality
|
192
|
|
Responsibility not to cause environmental damage
|
195
|
|
Conclusion
|
200
|
|
Principle of preventive action
|
200
|
|
Co-operation
|
203
|
|
Sustainable development
|
206
|
|
Introduction
|
206
|
|
Future generations
|
209
|
|
Sustainable use of natural resources
|
210
|
|
Equitable use of natural resources
|
213
|
|
Integration of environment and development
|
215
|
|
Conclusion
|
217
|
|
Precautionary principle
|
217
|
|
Polluter pays principle
|
228
|
|
OECD
|
230
|
|
European Union
|
231
|
|
Principle of common but differentiated responsibility
|
233
|
|
Common responsibility
|
234
|
|
Differentiated responsibility
|
234
|
|
Conclusions
|
236
|
|
7 Atmospheric protection and climate change
|
238
|
|
Introduction
|
238
|
|
Milestones in the development of atmospheric regulation
|
239
|
|
Trail Smelter case
|
239
|
|
Nuclear testing
|
240
|
|
Customary law
|
242
|
|
UNCED and WSSD
|
243
|
|
Urban and transboundary air pollution
|
245
|
|
1979 UNECE Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution and its Protocols
|
246
|
|
1979 LRTAP Convention
|
247
|
|
1984 Monitoring and Evaluation Protocol
|
248
|
|
1985 Sulphur Protocol
|
248
|
|
1988 NOx Protocol
|
249
|
|
1991 Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol
|
251
|
|
1994 Sulphur Protocol
|
253
|
|
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals
|
254
|
|
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants
|
255
|
|
1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone
|
255
|
|
1991 Canada–US Air Quality Agreement
|
257
|
|
Sulphur dioxide
|
257
|
|
Nitrogen oxides
|
258
|
|
Ozone
|
258
|
|
Assessment, information and institutions
|
258
|
|
2002 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
|
259
|
|
Aircraft emissions: ICAO Convention
|
260
|
|
Emissions from international shipping
|
261
|
|
Ozone depletion
|
262
|
|
1985 Vienna Convention
|
264
|
|
The 1987 Montreal Protocol: Adjustments and Amendments
|
265
|
|
Controlled substances
|
266
|
|
Control measures: consumption and production
|
267
|
|
Control measures: trade in controlled substances
|
271
|
|
Developing countries
|
272
|
|
Technical, financial and other assistance
|
272
|
|
Reporting and compliance
|
273
|
|
Institutional arrangements
|
274
|
|
Climate change
|
274
|
|
1992 Climate Change Convention
|
276
|
|
Preamble, definition, objective and principles
|
277
|
|
General commitments
|
278
|
|
Reporting
|
279
|
|
Specific commitments: sources and sinks
|
279
|
|
Commitments: financial resources and technology transfer
|
281
|
|
Institutional arrangements
|
282
|
|
Implementation and dispute settlement
|
283
|
|
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol
|
283
|
|
Emission reduction targets and timetable
|
285
|
|
Policies and measures
|
287
|
|
Flexibility mechanisms: emissions trading, joint implementation and the CDM
|
287
|
|
Sinks
|
291
|
|
Developing countries
|
292
|
|
Reporting and compliance
|
292
|
|
Subsequent developments: Copenhagen, Cancún and beyond
|
293
|
|
Copenhagen conference (COP 15)
|
294
|
|
Cancún conference (COP 16)
|
296
|
|
Ongoing negotiations
|
298
|
|
Outer space
|
299
|
|
1967 Outer Space Treaty
|
300
|
|
1979 Moon Treaty
|
300
|
|
Outer Space Principles
|
301
|
|
Conclusions
|
301
|
|
8 Freshwater resources
|
303
|
|
Introduction
|
303
|
|
Customary law
|
305
|
|
Lac Lanoux arbitration
|
307
|
|
ILA: 1966 Helsinki Rules and beyond
|
308
|
|
ILC: 1997 Watercourses Convention
|
310
|
|
ILC 2008: Articles on Transboundary Aquifers
|
312
|
|
Case Concerning the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project
|
313
|
|
Regional rules
|
319
|
|
Europe
|
319
|
|
Rhine
|
320
|
|
1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes
|
322
|
|
Americas
|
326
|
|
1909 Boundary Waters Treaty
|
326
|
|
Gut Dam arbitration
|
327
|
|
1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
|
328
|
|
The 1975 Statute of the River Uruguay
|
329
|
|
The Case Concerning the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay
|
330
|
|
Africa
|
333
|
|
Niger basin
|
334
|
|
Southern Africa, including the Zambezi River
|
335
|
|
Asia
|
336
|
|
Mekong River Basin
|
336
|
|
Subcontinental Asia
|
337
|
|
Israel–Jordan Peace Treaty
|
339
|
|
Conclusions
|
340
|
|
9 Oceans, seas and marine living resources
|
342
|
|
Introduction
|
342
|
|
Ecosystem approach
|
345
|
|
Protection of the marine environment
|
346
|
|
Introduction
|
346
|
|
Development of standards of international law
|
347
|
|
UNCLOS
|
349
|
|
Regional arrangements
|
352
|
|
UNEP Regional Seas Programme
|
352
|
|
Northeast Atlantic (1992 OSPAR Convention) and the North Sea
|
360
|
|
Baltic Sea: the 1992 Helsinki Convention
|
362
|
|
Caspian Sea: the 2003 Tehran Convention
|
364
|
|
Pollution by dumping
|
365
|
|
UNCLOS: general principles
|
366
|
|
1972 London Convention and 1996 Protocol
|
366
|
|
Regional agreements
|
370
|
|
Pollution from land-based sources including through the atmosphere
|
372
|
|
UNCLOS
|
373
|
|
1995 Global Programme of Action
|
374
|
|
Regional agreements
|
375
|
|
Atmospheric pollution
|
378
|
|
Pollution from vessels
|
378
|
|
UNCLOS
|
380
|
|
MARPOL 73/78
|
381
|
|
Other agreements on pollution from ships
|
385
|
|
Safety agreements
|
386
|
|
Pollution from seabed activities
|
387
|
|
UNCLOS
|
387
|
|
Regional agreements
|
389
|
|
Other agreements
|
390
|
|
Environmental emergencies
|
391
|
|
1969 Intervention Convention and 1973 Intervention Protocol
|
391
|
|
1989 Salvage Convention
|
392
|
|
1990 OPRC Convention and 2000 HNS Protocol
|
393
|
|
1969 and 1983 Bonn Agreements
|
394
|
|
UNEP Regional Seas Protocols
|
394
|
|
Liability and compensation
|
395
|
|
Conservation of marine living resources
|
396
|
|
Introduction
|
396
|
|
Milestones in the development of fisheries law
|
399
|
|
Pacific Fur Seal arbitration
|
399
|
|
Food and Agriculture Organization
|
400
|
|
The First UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958)
|
401
|
|
Fisheries Jurisdiction case
|
402
|
|
The 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment
|
402
|
|
UNCLOS
|
403
|
|
Territorial waters, archipelagic waters and the continental shelf
|
404
|
|
Exclusive economic zone
|
404
|
|
High seas
|
405
|
|
1995 Fish Stocks Agreement and other global arrangements
|
407
|
|
1995 Fish Stocks Agreement
|
408
|
|
1993 Compliance Agreement
|
410
|
|
1995 Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
|
411
|
|
Regional fishery arrangements
|
411
|
|
Fisheries case law
|
418
|
|
Estai case (Canada v. Spain)
|
418
|
|
Southern Bluefin Tuna cases (New Zealand v. Japan, Australia v. Japan)
|
420
|
|
Swordfish case (Chile v. EU)
|
421
|
|
Marine mammals
|
423
|
|
International Whaling Commission
|
425
|
|
1992 ASCOBANS
|
428
|
|
1992 NAMMCO
|
428
|
|
Marine birds
|
429
|
|
Destructive fishing practices
|
429
|
|
Driftnet fishing
|
430
|
|
Bottom trawling
|
431
|
|
Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing
|
432
|
|
2009 Agreement on Port State Measures
|
433
|
|
Conservation of marine biodiversity
|
434
|
|
The international legal framework
|
435
|
|
UNCLOS and the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement
|
435
|
|
Convention on Biological Diversity
|
435
|
|
Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
|
436
|
|
Resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly
|
437
|
|
Regional arrangements
|
437
|
|
Protection of deep-sea ecosystems
|
439
|
|
UNCLOS and the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement
|
440
|
|
Resolutions of the UN General Assembly
|
440
|
|
Food and Agriculture Organization
|
441
|
|
Convention on Biological Diversity
|
442
|
|
Marine protected areas
|
442
|
|
Marine protected areas within the EEZ
|
444
|
|
MPAs in areas beyond national jurisdiction
|
445
|
|
Conclusions
|
447
|
|
10 Biological diversity
|
449
|
|
Introduction
|
449
|
|
International law
|
451
|
|
Convention on Biological Diversity
|
453
|
|
Preamble and jurisdictional scope
|
454
|
|
Conservation and sustainable use
|
454
|
|
Access to genetic resources and benefit sharing
|
457
|
|
Biotechnology and living modified organisms
|
460
|
|
Financial resources and mechanism
|
460
|
|
Institutions and other mechanisms
|
460
|
|
Evolution of the Biodiversity Convention
|
461
|
|
2010 Nagoya Protocol
|
464
|
|
Global instruments addressing specific threats to biodiversity
|
466
|
|
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
|
466
|
|
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
|
472
|
|
Institutions
|
472
|
|
Preamble and definitions
|
473
|
|
Appendices I, II and III and international trade
|
473
|
|
Amendments to Appendices
|
474
|
|
Reservations
|
476
|
|
Exemptions and special provisions
|
476
|
|
Introduction from the sea under CITES
|
478
|
|
Enforcement
|
478
|
|
General instruments of regional and sub-regional application
|
479
|
|
Africa
|
480
|
|
1968 African Nature Convention
|
480
|
|
2003 Revised African Nature Convention
|
481
|
|
1994 Lusaka Agreement
|
483
|
|
The Americas and the Caribbean
|
484
|
|
1940 Western Hemisphere Convention
|
484
|
|
1978 Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation
|
485
|
|
Pacific islands region
|
486
|
|
Europe
|
487
|
|
1979 Berne Convention
|
487
|
|
1982 Benelux Convention
|
489
|
|
1991 Alpine Convention
|
489
|
|
2003 Carpathians Convention
|
490
|
|
Asia
|
490
|
|
Regulation of particular habitats or species
|
492
|
|
Wetlands
|
492
|
|
Forests
|
495
|
|
1994 International Tropical Timber Agreement
|
495
|
|
International Tropical Timber Agreement 2006
|
496
|
|
1992 Forest Principles
|
497
|
|
UN Forum on Forests
|
497
|
|
2007 Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests
|
498
|
|
Land, soil and desertification
|
499
|
|
1994 Convention to Combat Desertification
|
500
|
|
Migratory species
|
502
|
|
1979 Bonn Convention on Migratory Species
|
502
|
|
Birds
|
505
|
|
1950 Birds Convention
|
505
|
|
1970 Benelux Convention
|
505
|
|
Other animal species
|
506
|
|
1973 Polar Bear Agreement
|
506
|
|
1979 Vicuna Convention
|
506
|
|
Plants and plant genetic resources
|
507
|
|
Cultural and natural heritage and landscape
|
509
|
|
1972 World Heritage Convention
|
510
|
|
Conclusions
|
511
|
|
11 Hazardous substances and activities
|
514
|
|
Introduction
|
514
|
|
Definition of hazardous substances
|
516
|
|
Accident prevention, preparedness and response
|
516
|
|
1996 EU Seveso Directive
|
518
|
|
1992 Industrial Accidents Convention
|
519
|
|
Chemicals, pesticides and other dangerous substances
|
521
|
|
Registration and classification (including labelling and packaging)
|
522
|
|
Production and use
|
523
|
|
2001 POPs Convention
|
524
|
|
International trade
|
526
|
|
1985 FAO Code of Conduct
|
528
|
|
1987 UNEP London Guidelines
|
529
|
|
1998 Chemicals Convention
|
530
|
|
Transport
|
532
|
|
The working environment
|
532
|
|
Nuclear activities and radioactive substances
|
536
|
|
Nuclear safety
|
537
|
|
1994 Nuclear Safety Convention
|
538
|
|
1997 Joint Safety Convention
|
539
|
|
Transport
|
540
|
|
Protection of workers and the public
|
541
|
|
Border area co-operation
|
541
|
|
Emergencies
|
542
|
|
Nuclear weapons and testing, and nuclear-free zones
|
543
|
|
Other hazardous activities
|
546
|
|
Energy
|
547
|
|
Mining
|
548
|
|
Agriculture
|
550
|
|
Transportation
|
551
|
|
Tourism
|
551
|
|
Conclusions
|
552
|
|
12 Waste
|
554
|
|
Introduction
|
554
|
|
Defining and treating waste
|
557
|
|
Municipal waste
|
557
|
|
Hazardous and toxic wastes (industrial, agricultural and mining waste and sewage sludge)
|
558
|
|
Radioactive waste
|
560
|
|
Prevention and treatment
|
560
|
|
Disposal
|
562
|
|
Disposal at sea
|
563
|
|
Disposal into rivers and lakes by other land-based sources
|
564
|
|
Incineration
|
564
|
|
Landfill and other land disposal and storage
|
566
|
|
Recycling and re-use
|
566
|
|
International movement (including trade) in waste
|
567
|
|
The 1989 Basel Convention
|
568
|
|
1991 Bamako Convention
|
571
|
|
1995 Waigani Convention
|
572
|
|
North America
|
574
|
|
1990 IAEA Code of Conduct on Radioactive Waste and 1997 Joint Convention on Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management
|
574
|
|
Conclusions
|
575
|
|
13 The polar regions: Antarctica and the Arctic
|
577
|
|
Introduction
|
577
|
|
The Antarctic
|
578
|
|
The Antarctic Treaty regime
|
579
|
|
1959 Antarctic Treaty
|
579
|
|
1972 Antarctic Seals Convention
|
580
|
|
1980 CCAMLR
|
580
|
|
1988 CRAMRA
|
582
|
|
1991 Environment Protocol
|
586
|
|
Other treaty provisions
|
591
|
|
The Arctic
|
591
|
|
The Arctic Council
|
593
|
|
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme
|
594
|
|
Arctic Council Action Plan to Eliminate Pollution of the Arctic
|
594
|
|
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment Working Group
|
595
|
|
Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working Group
|
595
|
|
Emergency Prevention, Preparedness, and Response Working Group
|
596
|
|
Sustainable Development Working Group
|
596
|
|
Conclusions
|
596
|
|
Part III Techniques for implementing international principles and rules
|
599
|
|
14 Environmental impact assessment
|
601
|
|
Introduction
|
601
|
|
Non-binding instruments
|
602
|
|
UNCED and the WSSD
|
604
|
|
ILC draft Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm
|
605
|
|
Treaties and other binding instruments
|
605
|
|
1982 UNCLOS
|
607
|
|
1986 Noumea Convention
|
609
|
|
1991 Espoo Convention
|
610
|
|
2003 Strategic Environmental Assessment Protocol
|
613
|
|
1991 Antarctic Environment Protocol
|
614
|
|
1992 Biodiversity Convention
|
615
|
|
Risk assessment procedures
|
616
|
|
World Bank and other multilateral lending institutions
|
617
|
|
International cases
|
619
|
|
Conclusions
|
622
|
|
15 Environmental information
|
624
|
|
Introduction
|
624
|
|
Information exchange
|
626
|
|
Reporting and provision of information
|
629
|
|
Reports by organisations
|
630
|
|
Reports under treaties or other agreements
|
630
|
|
Reports of events other than emergencies
|
633
|
|
Information to and from non-state organisations
|
635
|
|
Consultation
|
636
|
|
Prior informed consent
|
638
|
|
Notification of emergency situations
|
639
|
|
Nuclear accidents
|
641
|
|
1986 Notification Convention
|
643
|
|
Monitoring and other information gathering
|
644
|
|
Treaty arrangements
|
646
|
|
Access to environmental information and public participation
|
648
|
|
1992 OSPAR Convention
|
650
|
|
1993 Lugano Civil Liability Convention
|
651
|
|
1998 Aarhus Convention
|
652
|
|
2003 Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers
|
655
|
|
Public education and awareness
|
657
|
|
Eco-labelling
|
658
|
|
Eco-auditing and accounting
|
659
|
|
Environmental accounting
|
660
|
|
Environmental auditing
|
662
|
|
Conclusions
|
662
|
|
16 Financial resources, technology transfer and intellectual property
|
665
|
|
Introduction
|
665
|
|
Financial resources and mechanisms
|
666
|
|
Overseas development assistance
|
667
|
|
Multilateral development banks
|
668
|
|
World Bank
|
669
|
|
Regional and sub-regional development banks
|
671
|
|
Environment funds
|
674
|
|
UNEP Environment Fund
|
674
|
|
World Heritage Fund
|
675
|
|
Wetland Conservation Fund
|
675
|
|
Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund
|
675
|
|
Global Environment Facility
|
676
|
|
Technology transfer and technical assistance
|
679
|
|
Treaty provisions
|
681
|
|
The ozone regime
|
682
|
|
Biodiversity Convention
|
683
|
|
2010 Nagoya Protocol
|
684
|
|
Climate Change Convention and Kyoto Protocol
|
685
|
|
Intellectual property
|
686
|
|
Technology transfer
|
687
|
|
Patents and other rights
|
690
|
|
Traditional knowledge
|
695
|
|
Conclusions
|
697
|
|
17 Liability for environmental damage
|
700
|
|
Introduction
|
700
|
|
State liability
|
702
|
|
Introduction
|
702
|
|
General international law
|
705
|
|
Defining environmental damage
|
706
|
|
Threshold at which environmental damage entails liability
|
708
|
|
Standard of care
|
711
|
|
Reparation
|
714
|
|
State practice
|
717
|
|
UN Compensation Commission
|
720
|
|
International crimes
|
725
|
|
Treaties
|
727
|
|
1972 Space Liability Convention
|
727
|
|
1979 LRTAP Convention
|
729
|
|
1982 UNCLOS
|
729
|
|
1988 CRAMRA and 1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol
|
733
|
|
1992 Climate Change Convention
|
734
|
|
The work of the International Law Commission
|
734
|
|
Civil liability for environmental damage under international law
|
737
|
|
Nuclear installations
|
738
|
|
1960 Paris Convention
|
739
|
|
1963 Vienna Convention
|
742
|
|
1988 Joint Protocol
|
745
|
|
Oil pollution
|
745
|
|
1992 Civil Liability Convention
|
746
|
|
The 1992 Fund Convention
|
748
|
|
2001 Bunker Oil Convention
|
755
|
|
Private compensation schemes
|
755
|
|
Marine environment
|
756
|
|
Waste
|
757
|
|
Transport
|
759
|
|
Antarctic
|
760
|
|
1988 CRAMRA
|
760
|
|
1991 Antarctic Environment Protocol
|
761
|
|
Biodiversity
|
764
|
|
General instruments relating to dangerous goods or activities
|
766
|
|
Council of Europe
|
766
|
|
UNECE
|
770
|
|
Conclusions
|
771
|
|
Part IV Linkage of international environmental law and other areas of international law
|
773
|
|
18 Human rights and armed conflict
|
775
|
|
International human rights
|
775
|
|
Introduction
|
775
|
|
Development of international human rights law
|
777
|
|
Environmental protection and human rights
|
777
|
|
Economic and social rights
|
780
|
|
Civil and political rights
|
787
|
|
War and armed conflict
|
789
|
|
Introduction
|
789
|
|
International environmental law during war and armed conflict
|
790
|
|
International law of war and armed conflict: general rules of environmental protection
|
792
|
|
International law of war and armed conflict: special rules of environmental protection
|
794
|
|
Conclusions
|
797
|
|
19 International trade and competition
|
799
|
|
Introduction
|
799
|
|
Trade measures in international environmental agreements
|
801
|
|
Unilateral environmental measures and international trade
|
806
|
|
WTO/GATT
|
808
|
|
Technical barriers to trade
|
810
|
|
Committee on Trade and the Environment
|
811
|
|
WTO/GATT dispute settlement
|
812
|
|
Reformulated Gasoline case (1996)
|
815
|
|
Shrimp/Turtle cases (1998 and 2001)
|
818
|
|
Asbestos case (2000)
|
824
|
|
Brazil Retreaded Tyres case (2007)
|
827
|
|
Assessment
|
829
|
|
Measures for health and safety protection
|
830
|
|
Beef Hormones
|
832
|
|
Australia Salmon
|
838
|
|
Japan Varietals
|
840
|
|
Japan Apples
|
841
|
|
Australia Apples
|
842
|
|
EC – Biotech
|
844
|
|
Assessment
|
846
|
|
European Union
|
847
|
|
Trade restrictions on environmental grounds: the role of the European Court of Justice
|
848
|
|
Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement
|
852
|
|
North American Free Trade Agreement
|
854
|
|
Agricultural, sanitary and phytosanitary measures
|
855
|
|
Non-technical barriers to trade
|
856
|
|
Competition
|
858
|
|
Institutions and dispute settlement
|
858
|
|
North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
|
859
|
|
Border Environment Cooperation Commission, and North American Development Bank
|
860
|
|
African Economic Community
|
860
|
|
Competition and subsidies
|
861
|
|
Subsidies
|
862
|
|
Anti-competitive agreements
|
865
|
|
Anti-dumping
|
866
|
|
Conclusions
|
866
|
|
20 Foreign investment
|
869
|
|
Introduction
|
869
|
