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Foreword
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xiii
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Acknowledgements
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xv
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Select list of abbreviations
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xviii
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Table of cases
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xx
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Table of treaties
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xxxiii
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Part I: The Framework
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1
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1. Structures of the international legal system
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3
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1.1 Introduction
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3
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1.2 Methodology: a rules-based approach
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7
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1.3 The engagement of individuals in the international legal system: structural issues
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10
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(a) Prelude: differing legal structures in the early period
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10
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(b) The long nineteenth century
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13
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(c) The inter-war period
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16
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(d) The post-1945 international legal system
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26
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1.4 International legal personality as the measure of engagement in the international legal system
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29
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(a) Development of the doctrine of subjects: the Reparations Opinion
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30
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(b) Sui generis subjects of international law
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32
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(c) The individual as a ‘subject’ of international law
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36
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1.5 Challenges to the centrality of states in the international legal system: alternative approaches
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38
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(a) Positivism in its classical and modern forms
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40
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(b) Process approaches
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42
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(c) ‘Cosmopolitanism’
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43
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Part II: The Individual in International Law
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45
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2. The individual and international claims
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47
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2.1 Introduction
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47
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2.2 Doctrine and practice pre-1914
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48
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(a) Vattel’s articulation
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49
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(b) The practice
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50
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(i) Arbitration of specifically defined diplomatic protection claims
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52
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(ii) Claims tribunals and commissions
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54
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(A) Control of the claim
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55
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(B) Payment of awards
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57
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(C) Binding effect of the decision on an inter-state basis
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58
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(D) Standing before the International Prize Court and the Central American Court of Justice
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60
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(c) Conclusions
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62
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2.3 Doctrine and practice in the inter-war period
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65
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(a) The development of doctrine
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65
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(b) The practice of international claims tribunals
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71
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(i) Mixed arbitral tribunals after the First World War
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72
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(A) The mixed arbitral tribunals under the Peace Treaties
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72
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(B) The US Mixed Claims Commissions
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73
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(C) The Upper Silesian Mixed Commission and Arbitral Tribunal
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74
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(ii) Mexican Claims Commissions 1923–1932
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77
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(c) Conclusions
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83
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2.4 Diplomatic protection and individual claims after 1945
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85
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(a) The development of doctrine
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85
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(i) Diplomatic protection
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85
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(ii) Individual rights
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94
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(b) International claims tribunals and commissions
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97
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(i) Post-Second World War commissions and tribunals
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97
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(ii) The Iran–US Claims Tribunal
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98
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(iii) The UN Compensation Commission
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101
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(c) Investment treaty arbitration
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103
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(d) Conclusions
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119
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2.5 Conclusions: the position of the individual relative to international claims
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120
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Appendix IArbitration of diplomatic protection claims 1794–1914
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124
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Appendix IIInternational claims tribunals and commissions 1794–1914
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134
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Appendix IIIInternational claims tribunals and commissions 1919–1939
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162
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3. The individual in international humanitarian law
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176
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3.1 Introduction
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176
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3.2 The individual in international armed conflict
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177
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(a) Regulation of international war pre-1914
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177
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(b) Developments in the inter-war period
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180
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(c) The individual in international armed conflict after 1945
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181
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(i) The 1949 Geneva Conventions
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182
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(ii) Additional Protocol I of 1977
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189
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(iii) Customary international humanitarian law
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191
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(iv) International human rights law applicable in international armed conflict
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193
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3.3 The individual in internal armed conflict
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196
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(a) Regulation of civil war pre-1914
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198
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(b) The inter-war period
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206
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(c) The individual in internal armed conflict after 1945
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208
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(i) Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions
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208
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(ii) Additional Protocol II
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213
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(iii) Customary international humanitarian law
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219
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(iv) International human rights law applicable in non-international armed conflict
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222
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3.4 Conclusions: the position of the individual in international humanitarian law
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224
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4. The individual in international criminal law
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229
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4.1 Introduction
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229
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4.2 Individual responsibility before 1919
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230
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4.3 The inter-war period: the Kaiser and the Leipzig trials
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234
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4.4 Individual responsibility after 1945
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241
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(a) Post-Second World War prosecutions
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241
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(i) The Nuremberg Tribunal
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241
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(ii) The Tokyo Tribunal
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249
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(iii) Control Council Law No. 10 trials and military commissions in the Pacific
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251
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(b) The ‘Nuremberg Principles’
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253
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(c) Development of substantive international criminal law in the United Nations
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258
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(d) International criminal tribunals and courts
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260
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(i) Ad hoc international tribunals
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261
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(ii) The International Criminal Court
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267
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(iii) International crimes before ‘hybrid’ and domestic courts
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271
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4.5 Conclusions: the position of the individual in international criminal law
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274
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5. The individual in international human rights law
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278
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5.1 Introduction
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278
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5.2 Antecedents: the case of slavery
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279
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5.3 Protection of individuals during the inter-war period
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282
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(a) Minorities
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282
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(b) Inhabitants of mandated territories
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287
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(c) Refugees
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291
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(d) The International Labour Organisation
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294
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(e) Conclusions
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295
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5.4 International protection of human rights after 1945
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296
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(a) Human rights rhetoric during the Second World War
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296
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(b) Preparation for an international bill of rights
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299
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(c) The United Nations Charter: a promise postponed
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301
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(d) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
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306
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(e) From moral imperative to legal articulation: state obligations, individual rights and international enforcement in the European system
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307
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(f) Human rights and state obligations in the UN system
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312
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(i) Subject-specific conventions
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313
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(ii) The International Covenants
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315
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(iii) Declarations of specific rights
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320
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(iv) Special procedures before the Human Rights Commission (now the Human Rights Council)
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321
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(g) Customary international human rights law: from soft to hard law?
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322
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(h) Jus cogens human rights norms
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326
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(i) The evolution of enforcement mechanisms: the regional systems
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327
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(j) Conclusions
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335
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5.5 Conclusions: the position of the individual in international human rights law
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337
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Part III: Reassessing the Framework
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341
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6. Reflections on the structures of the international legal system
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343
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6.1 Introduction
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343
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6.2 Historical development of the position of the individual in the international legal system
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343
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(a) The nineteenth century international legal system
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343
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(b) The inter-war period
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346
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(c) The post-1945 international legal system
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349
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6.3 International legal personality as the measure of engagement: the case of the individual
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353
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(a) ‘Subjects’ versus ‘objects’
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353
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(b) Locating individuals: rights, obligations and capacities
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358
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(c) Moving from the actor to the action? The notion of international law relationships
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363
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6.4 Reflections on structural transition in the international legal system: the case of the individual
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365
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(a) Relative openness and flexibility of the system
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365
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(b) Forces for structural change: solutions above theories
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367
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(c) States in the international legal system
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369
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Bibliography
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373
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Index
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394
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