The International Law of the Sea

Author: Yoshifumi Tanaka
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
ISBN: 9781107009998
Published In: April 2012
Format: Hardback , 504 pages
Jurisdiction: International ? Disclaimer:
Countri(es) stated herein are used as reference only

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The law of the sea is a complex and fascinating subject. This textbook explores the subject from the perspective of public international law, covering all the key topics from the legal regimes governing the different jurisdictional zones, to international co-operation for protection of the marine environment. Students interested in international environmental and natural resources law will find chapters on emerging issues such as the conservation and the protection of natural resources and biodiversity in the oceans. It includes student-friendly features such as chapter overviews, conclusions, figures and tables and further reading sections. Clarity of expression, engaging analysis and comprehensive coverage make this book essential reading for all students of the law of the sea.

• In-depth coverage of all key topics in the law of the sea - Part I looks at the classic role of the law of the sea, while Part II looks at newer uses for the law such as protection and the peaceful resolution of disputes

• Looks at emerging environmental issues such as conservation and the protection of natural resources and biodiversity in the oceans for students interested in international environmental and natural resources law

• Highlights the importance of international co-operation in the way the oceans are governed

• Includes student-friendly features such as chapter introductions, figures and tables and further reading sections

Preface	xv
List of Figures	xvii
List of Tables	xviii
List of Abbreviations	xix
Table of Cases	xxi
Table of Treaties and Instruments	xxv
Part I The Divided Oceans: International Law Governing Jurisdictional Zones	1
1 The Law of the sea in perspective	3
1 Introduction	3
1.1 General considerations	3
1.2 Functions of the law of the sea	4
2 Marine spaces in the law of the sea	5
2.1 Scope of the oceans in the law of the sea	5
2.2 Typology of marine spaces	5
3 Sources of the international law of the sea	8
3.1 Formal sources	8
3.2 Material sources	13
4 Principles of the international law of the sea	16
4.1 Principle of freedom	16
4.2 Principle of sovereignty	17
4.3 Principle of the common heritage of mankind	19
5 The codification of the law of the sea	20
5.1 The Hague Conference for the Codification of International Law (1930)	20
5.2 The First UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958)	21
5.3 The Second UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (1960)	24
5.4 The Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (1973–1982)	24
6 Outline of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea	30
6.1 General considerations	30
6.2 Principal features of the Convention	31
7 Development after UNCLOS III	32
7.1 General considerations	32
7.2 Adoption of two Implementation Agreements	33
7.3 De facto amendment of the LOSC through Meetings of States Parties	34
7.4 Development of the law of the sea through international organisations	35
8 Conclusions	37
2 Baselines and related issues	43
1 Introduction	43
2 Baselines	44
2.1 Normal baselines	44
2.2 Straight baselines	45
2.3 Juridical bays	53
2.4 Historic bays	56
2.5 Bays bordered by more than one State	59
2.6 River mouths	60
2.7 Ports	61
3 Islands	62
3.1 Nature of the problem	62
3.2 Geological elements of islands	63
3.3 Socio-economic elements of islands	64
3.4 Customary law nature of Article 121	67
3.5 Reefs	68
4 Low-tide elevations	69
4.1 Identification of low-tide elevations	69
4.2 Case law concerning low-tide elevations	70
5 Conclusions	72
3 Marine spaces under national jurisdiction I: territorial sovereignty	76
1 Introduction	76
2 Internal waters	77
2.1 Spatial scope of internal waters	77
2.2 Legal status of internal waters	78
2.3 Jurisdiction of the coastal State over foreign vessels in internal waters	78
2.4 Access to ports	80
2.5 Ships in distress at sea	81
3 Territorial sea	83
3.1 Legal status of the territorial sea	83
3.2 The right of innocent passage	85
3.3 The right of innocent passage of warships	88
3.4 The right of innocent passage of foreign nuclear-powered ships and ships carrying inherently dangerous or noxious substances	92
3.5 The rights of the coastal State concerning innocent passage	93
3.6 The obligations of the coastal State concerning innocent passage	95
4 International straits	96
4.1 Legal framework for international straits prior to 1982	96
4.2 Typology of international straits under the LOSC	97
4.3 International straits under Part III of the LOSC	97
4.4 International straits outside the scope of Part III of the LOSC	100
4.5 The right of transit passage	102
4.6 Rights and obligations of coastal States bordering straits	104
4.7 Customary law character of the right of transit passage	106
4.8 Non-suspendable innocent passage	107
4.9 Legality of creation of bridges in international straits	107
5 Archipelagic waters	108
5.1 General considerations	108
5.2 Definition of an archipelago, archipelagic States and archipelagic waters	109
5.3 Archipelagic baselines	110
5.4 Jurisdiction of archipelagic States over archipelagic waters	112
5.5 The right of innocent passage through archipelagic waters	113
5.6 The right of archipelagic sea lanes passage	114
5.7 Rights and obligations of an archipelagic State	116
6 Conclusions	116
4 Marine spaces under national jurisdiction II: sovereign rights	120
1 Introduction	120
2 Contiguous zone	121
2.1 The concept of the contiguous zone	121
2.2 Coastal State jurisdiction over the contiguous zone	122
3 Exclusive economic zone	124
3.1 Genesis of the concept of the EEZ	124
3.2 Legal status of the EEZ	125
3.3 Sovereign rights over the EEZ	126
3.4 Jurisdiction of coastal States over the EEZ	128
3.5 Freedoms of third States	130
3.6 Residual rights	131
4 Continental shelf	132
4.1 Genesis of the concept of the continental shelf	132
4.2 Spatial scope of the continental shelf	133
4.3 Criteria for determining the outer limits of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles	135
4.4 The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf	138
4.5 Procedures to establish the outer limits of the continental shelf	139
4.6 Payments concerning the exploitation of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles	141
4.7 The sovereign rights of the coastal State over the continental shelf	142
4.8 Freedoms of third States	144
5 Conclusions	146
5 Marine spaces beyond national jurisdiction	149
1 Introduction	149
2 The high seas	150
2.1 Spatial scope of the high seas	150
2.2 Principle of the freedom of the high seas	150
2.3 Principle of the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State	152
2.4 The nationality of a ship	155
2.5 Problems associated with flags of convenience	157
2.6 Exceptions to the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State (1): the right of visit	159
2.7 Exceptions to the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State (2): the right of hot pursuit	163
2.8 Exceptional measures	167
3 The Area	170
3.1 General considerations	170
3.2 Spatial scope of the Area	170
3.3 Raison d’être of the principle of the common heritage of mankind	171
3.4 Elements of the principle of the common heritage of mankind	172
3.5 International Seabed Authority	173
3.6 System for the exploration and exploitation of resources of the Area	177
3.7 The 1994 Implementation Agreement	178
3.8 Evaluation	182
4 Conclusions	183
6 Maritime delimitation	186
1 Introduction	186
2 Concept of maritime delimitation	187
2.1 Definition	187
2.2 Typology of maritime delimitation	188
3 Treaty law concerning maritime delimitation	188
3.1 The 1958 Geneva Conventions	188
3.2 The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea	190
4 Development of case law relating to maritime delimitation: two contrasting approaches	192
4.1 The first phase (1969–1992)	192
4.2 The second phase (1993–present)	194
4.3 Commentary	197
5 Consideration of relevant circumstances (1): geographical factors	198
5.1 Configuration of coasts	198
5.2 Proportionality	199
5.3 Baselines	202
5.4 Presence of islands	204
5.5 Geological and geomorphological factors	206
5.6 Presence of third States	206
6 Consideration of relevant circumstances (2): non-geographical factors	208
6.1 Economic factors	208
6.2 Conduct of the parties	210
6.3 Historic rights	211
6.4 Security interests	212
6.5 Navigational factors	212
6.6 Environmental factors	212
7 An evaluation	213
7.1 General trend of case law	213
7.2 Judicial creativity in the law of maritime delimitation	213
8 Conclusions	214
PART II OUR COMMON OCEAN: PROTECTION OF COMMUNITY INTERESTS AT SEA	217
7 Conservation of marine living resources	219
1 Introduction	219
2 Conservation of marine living resources prior to 1982	221
3 Conservation of marine living resources under the LOSC (1): the zonal management approach	222
3.1 General considerations	222
3.2 Conservation of marine living resources in the EEZ	223
3.3 Conservation of marine living resources in the high seas	224
3.4 Limits of the zonal management approach	226
4 Conservation of marine living resources under the LOSC (2): the species specific approach	227
4.1 Shared and straddling fish stocks	227
4.2 Highly migratory species	228
4.3 Marine mammals	228
4.4 Anadromous stocks	232
4.5 Catadromous species	234
4.6 Limits of the species specific approach	234
5 Development after the LOSC	235
5.1 The concept of sustainable development	235
5.2 The ecosystem approach	237
5.3 The precautionary approach	239
6 Ensuring compliance	242
6.1 Flag State responsibility and its limits	242
6.2 At-sea inspection of vessels of Contracting Parties	244
6.3 At-sea inspection of non-Contracting Party vessels	246
6.4 Port inspection of Contracting Party vessels	247
6.5 Port inspection of non-Contracting Party vessels	249
7 Conclusions	250
8 Protection of the marine environment	253
1 Introduction	253
2 Typology of marine pollution	255
2.1 General considerations	255
2.2 Land-based marine pollution	256
2.3 Vessel-source marine pollution	257
2.4 Dumping at sea	258
2.5 Pollution from seabed activities	259
3 Legal framework for marine environmental protection prior to 1982	260
3.1 Customary law	260
3.2 Treaty law	262
4 Protection of the marine environment in the LOSC	262
4.1 Generality and comprehensiveness	263
4.2 Uniformity of rules	264
4.3 Obligation to cooperate in the protection of the marine environment	265
5 Regulation of land-based marine pollution	266
5.1 Limits of the global legal framework	266
5.2 Development of regional treaties	269
5.3 Identification of harmful substances	270
5.4 Precautionary approach	272
5.5 Environmental impact assessment	272
5.6 International control	274
6 Regulation of vessel-source marine pollution	276
6.1 MARPOL	276
6.2 The LOSC regime (1): regulation by flag States	280
6.3 The LOSC regime (2): regulation by coastal States	281
6.4 The LOSC regime (3): regulation by port States	283
6.5 Port State Control	285
6.6 Intervention by coastal States in the case of pollution casualties	287
6.7 Pollution emergencies at sea	289
6.8 Liability for oil pollution damage	291
6.9 Liability for other pollution damage	295
7 Dumping at sea	298
7.1 Regulation of dumping at sea under the LOSC	298
7.2 The 1972 London Dumping Convention and the 1996 Protocol	299
7.3 Regional treaties	300
7.4 Ocean sequestration and fertilisation	301
8 Regulation of pollution from seabed activities	302
8.1 Marine pollution arising from seabed activities under national jurisdiction	302
8.2 Marine pollution arising from seabed activities in the Area	303
9 Environmental protection of ice-covered areas	305
10 Conclusions	307
9 Conservation of marine biological diversity	312
1 Introduction	312
2 Principal approaches to conservation of marine biological diversity	314
2.1 General considerations	314
2.2 Three approaches	314
3 Global legal frameworks for the conservation of marine biological diversity	316
3.1 The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea	316
3.2 The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity	319
4 Marine Protected Areas	324
4.1 General considerations	324
4.2 Typology of MPAs in international law	325
4.3 MPAs in the high seas	328
4.4 Limits of MPAs	332
5 Conclusions	332
10 Marine scientific research	335
1 Introduction	335
2 The concept of marine scientific research	336
3 Regulation of marine scientific research in the LOSC	338
3.1 General considerations	338
3.2 Marine scientific research in marine spaces under national jurisdiction	339
3.3 Marine scientific research in marine spaces beyond national jurisdiction	341
3.4 Regulation of scientific research installations	342
4 Legality of military and hydrographic surveys in the EEZ	344
5 International cooperation in marine scientific research	346
6 Transfer of technology	347
6.1 Transfer of technology under the LOSC	347
6.2 IOC criteria and guidelines on the transfer of marine technology	349
7 Conclusions	350
11 Maintenance of international peace and security at sea	353
1 Introduction	353
2 The suppression of piracy	354
2.1 Concept of piracy	354
2.2 Seizure of pirates	357
2.3 The role of the UN Security Council in counter-piracy operations	360
3 Regulation of unlawful offences and weapons of mass destruction at sea	361
3.1 The 2005 SUA Convention	361
3.2 Proliferation security initiative	365
3.3 United Nations interdictions at sea	367
4 Military exercises in the EEZ	367
5 Regulation of nuclear weapons at sea	370
6 Conclusions	372
12 Land-locked and geographically disadvantaged states	376
1 Introduction	376
2 Land-locked States and access to the sea	378
2.1 Legal regime prior to the LOSC	378
2.2 Legal regime of the LOSC	380
3 The navigational rights of land-locked States	382
4 Land-locked and geographically disadvantaged States and uses of the oceans	383
4.1 Fishing rights	383
4.2 Exploitation of non-living resources in the oceans	385
4.3 Marine scientific research	386
5 Conclusions	387
13 Peaceful settlement of international disputes	390
1 Introduction	390
2 Basic structure of dispute settlement procedures in the LOSC	391
2.1 General considerations	391
2.2 The interlinkage between voluntary and compulsory procedures for dispute settlement	393
2.3 Voluntary conciliation	397
3 Compulsory procedures for dispute settlement	398
3.1 Multiplicity of forums	398
3.2 Limitations to the compulsory procedures	400
3.3 Optional exceptions to the compulsory procedures	402
4 The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (1): Organisation	404
4.1 Members of ITLOS	404
4.2 The Seabed Disputes Chamber	407
4.3 Special chambers	408
5 The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (2): Procedure	409
5.1 Jurisdiction of ITLOS	409
5.2 Applicable law	410
5.3 Proceedings before ITLOS	410
5.4 Incidental proceedings	410
5.5 Judgment	414
5.6 Advisory proceedings	415
5.7 Prompt release procedure	417
6 Conclusions	420
Index	424

Yoshifumi Tanaka
University of Copenhagen

Advance praise: 'This book provides comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of a central topic in international law. It goes beyond the traditional subjects covered in the law of the sea to include contemporary and important maritime issues, such as the conservation of marine biological diversity and the maintenance of international peace and security at sea. Presented in a simple, yet precise, manner, it will equip the reader with an understanding of all of the key issues in the law of the sea, as well as an appreciation of the challenges which still lie ahead for the subject.' James Harrison, University of Edinburgh

'Professor Tanaka has written an excellent exposition of the law of the sea which offers both comprehensive coverage of key Conventions and agreements and analysis of pertinent judicial opinions and State practice. I very warmly encourage all students of this area of the law, to rely on this book in their further study of the topic.' Duncan French, University of Sheffield