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Australian Intellectual Property Law, 2nd Edition

Australian Intellectual Property Law, 2nd Edition

Author: Mark J. Davison; Ann L. Monotti; Leanne Wiseman
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
ISBN: 9781107636033
Published In: February 2012
Format: Paperback , 752 pages
Jurisdiction: Australia ? Disclaimer:
Countri(es) stated herein are used as reference only

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Intellectual property law in Australia has changed dramatically in the last decade and continues to change. Developments in technology, the rise of the internet, the globalisation of trade and the increasing importance of 'superbrands' – trade marks with global appeal – have all affected the laws surrounding intellectual property. Furthermore, globalisation has resulted in greater pressure on intellectual property owners to expand their rights as they endeavour to capture the potential benefits of ownership in an increasingly affluent and integrated world economy. Australian Intellectual Property Law, 2nd edition has been fully revised to take into account these significant case and legislative developments in trademarks, copyright and patents law. This book offers students and legal professionals a detailed discussion of the black-letter aspects of the law, with a primary emphasis on legal principles and complexities.

• Provides comprehensive coverage of recent developments in Australian intellectual property law, such as the rise of the internet, the globalisation of trade and the increasing importance of 'superbrands

' • Features a companion website with upcoming amendments to the Intellectual Property Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Bill 2011

• Written by experts in the field of intellectual property law in Australia

Preface	xxiii
Acknowledgements	xxv
Table of statutes	xxvi
Table of cases	l
1 Introduction	1
1.1 The nature of intellectual property	1
1.2 Theory of intellectual property	2
1.2.1 The ‘property’ in intellectual property	2
1.2.2 Natural or personality rights	3
1.2.3 Incentive to create and disseminate	3
1.2.4 Protection for investment	4
1.2.5 Rent seeking	5
1.2.6 A combination of all the above	5
1.3 The intellectual property regimes	6
1.3.1 Passing off	6
1.3.2 Registered trade marks	7
1.3.3 Copyright and related rights	7
1.3.4 Designs	9
1.3.5 Confidential information	9
1.3.6 Patents	10
1.3.7 Plant breeder's rights	10
1.4 Impact of new technology	11
1.5 Internationalisation of intellectual property	12
1.5.1 WIPO	13
1.5.2 TRIPS (1994)	13
1.5.3 Bilateral agreements	15
1.5.4 Harmonisation of intellectual property procedures	16
1.6 Intellectual property in Australia	16
1.6.1 History of Australian intellectual property law	16
1.6.2 Constitutional law issues	17
1.7 Scheme of the book	19
2 Passing off	20
2.1 History of passing off	20
2.1.1 Common law and passing off	20
2.1.2 Equity and passing off	21
2.2 Elements of passing off	22
2.3 The reputation of the plaintiff	23
2.3.1 Location of reputation	25
2.3.2 Ownership of reputation	27
2.3.3 Joint ownership of reputation	27
2.3.4 Dual ownership: honest concurrent user and use of own name	28
2.3.5 Reputation in descriptive words and insignia: secondary meanings	30
2.3.6 Reputation in packaging and appearance	32
2.3.7 Reputation of marketing image	33
2.3.8 Reputation in personality	34
2.3.9 Abandonment of reputation	35
2.4 The misrepresentation	35
2.4.1 Misrepresentation, confusion and deception	35
2.4.2 The target of the representation	37
2.4.3 Misrepresentations of the trade origin of goods	38
2.4.4 Different quality of goods	38
2.4.5 Character merchandising	39
2.5 Passing off and the internet	42
2.5.1 Domain names	43
2.5.2 Australian passing off cases and the internet	44
2.5.3 Uniform dispute resolution policy	46
2.5.4 Australian uniform dispute resolution policy	48
2.5.5 Framing	48
2.5.6 Meta-tags	49
2.5.7 Pop-up advertisements when internet searching	50
2.6 Effect of disclaimers	51
2.7 A holistic perspective	53
2.8 Damage	53
2.9 Statutory causes of action	55
2.9.1 Application of the legislation	55
2.9.2 ‘In trade or commerce’	55
2.9.3 ‘Engage in conduct’	56
2.9.4 ‘Misleading or deceptive’	56
2.10 Comparison with passing off	58
2.10.1 Sections 29, 33 and 34 of sch 2	59
2.10.2 Injurious falsehood	59
2.11 Comparison with Europe and the United States	59
2.12 Remedies	61
3 Registered trade marks	64
3.1 History of registered trade marks	64
3.2 Drawbacks of passing off	65
3.3 Functions of trade marks	66
3.3.1 Reducing search costs	67
3.3.2 Managing property interests	67
3.4 Overview of the registration process	68
3.5 Definition of a trade mark	70
3.6 Definition of a sign	70
3.6.1 Aspect of packaging, shape	71
3.6.2 Colour	73
3.6.3 Sounds	73
3.6.4 Scents	74
3.7 ‘Used or intended to be used’	74
3.7.1 Unconditional intention	74
3.7.2 Objective test of intention	75
3.7.3 Use by others	75
3.8 Distinguishing goods or services	76
3.8.1 ‘Dealt with or provided’	77
3.8.2 ‘In the course of trade’	77
3.8.3 ‘By a person’	78
3.9 Ownership	79
3.9.1 First use in Australia	79
3.9.2 Distributorship arrangements	81
3.9.3 Creation or adoption of an overseas trade mark	82
3.9.4 Persons who can own a trade mark	83
3.10 Certification trade marks	83
3.10.1 Requirements for registration	84
3.10.2 Certification by other means	85
3.11 Collective trade marks	86
3.12 Defensive trade marks	86
3.13 Overview of requirements at examination of standard trade mark applications	88
3.14 National signs not to be used as trade marks	89
3.15 Signs prescribed under s 39(2)	89
3.16 Trade mark cannot be represented graphically (s 40)	90
3.17 Trade mark not able to be distinguished (s 41)	90
3.17.1 Inherent distinctiveness	91
3.17.2 Partial inherent distinctiveness: use and intended use	94
3.17.3 Distinctiveness through use	94
3.17.4 Functional shapes	95
3.17.5 Colour trade marks	99
3.18 Scandalous trade marks	100
3.19 Use contrary to law	100
3.20 Deceptive or confusing trade marks	101
3.21 Trade marks identical or similar to existing trade marks	102
3.21.1 Substantially identical with	103
3.21.2 Or deceptively similar to	103
3.21.3 The context of the comparison	105
3.21.4 Similar goods	106
3.21.5 Similar services	108
3.21.6 Closely related goods and services	108
3.21.7 A global assessment	109
3.22 Honest concurrent user	109
3.23 Prior continuous user	111
3.24 Other legislation	112
3.24.1 Protection of sporting events	112
3.24.2 Business names	113
3.24.3 Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation Amendment Act 1993 (Cth)	114
3.24.4 Protection for particular industries	114
3.25 Overview of grounds of opposition	115
3.26 Another trade mark's prior reputation (s 60)	116
3.26.1 Relationship with honest concurrent user and prior continuous user provisions	118
3.27 Geographical indications (s 61)	118
3.27.1 Definition of a geographical indication	119
3.27.2 Interpretation of s 61	120
3.27.3 Exceptions to s 61(1)	121
3.28 Application made in bad faith	121
3.29 Overview of rectification of the Register	122
3.30 Amendment or cancellation by Registrar	122
3.31 Overview of rectification by the court	124
3.31.1 Aggrieved person	125
3.32 Errors and omissions (s 85)	126
3.33 Contravention of conditions or limits (s 86)	126
3.34 Effect of ss 24 and 25 on s 87	126
3.35 Cancellation, removal or amendment (s 88(2))	128
3.36 Transitional provisions and presumptive validity	129
3.36.1 Fraud	129
3.36.2 Contrary to s 28 of the repealed legislation	129
3.36.3 Not distinctive when proceedings commence	130
3.37 General discretion not to rectify	130
3.38 Grounds for opposition	131
3.39 Fraud, false suggestion or misrepresentation	132
3.40 Use likely to deceive or cause confusion	132
3.41 Rectification not granted if registered owner not at fault	133
3.42 Removal for non-use	136
3.42.1 General discretion	137
3.42.2 Changes to non-use under the Trade Marks Amendment Act 2006 (Cth)	138
4 Exploitation of registered trade marks	139
4.1 Overview of infringement of trade marks	139
4.1.1 Use as a trade mark	139
4.1.2 Use as descriptive term rather than trade mark	140
4.1.3 Sign used to distinguish goods and services from others	142
4.1.4 Substantially identical with or deceptively similar to	143
4.1.5 Relevance of the defendant's conduct	144
4.1.6 Relevance of the plaintiff's trade mark's reputation	145
4.2 Section 120(1)	146
4.2.1 The goods or services for which the trade mark is registered	147
4.3 Section 120(2)	147
4.4 Section 120(3)	148
4.4.1 Anti-dilution	149
4.4.2 Well known	150
4.4.3 Used in relation to unrelated goods or services	152
4.4.4 Indicating a connection with the owner	152
4.4.5 Owner's interests adversely affected	154
4.4.6 Anti-dilution or passing off?	155
4.4.7 Comparison with passing off	156
4.5 Oral use of a trade mark	156
4.6 Two-dimensional device infringed by three-dimensional shape	157
4.7 Parallel importing	157
4.7.1 Parallel importing and licensees	161
4.7.2 Parallel importing and passing off	161
4.8 Second-hand goods	162
4.9 Trade mark infringement and the internet	163
4.10 Section 121: breach of certain restrictions	166
4.11 Groundless threats of legal proceedings	166
4.12 Acts not constituting infringement	168
4.12.1 In good faith	168
4.12.2 Good faith use of a name (s 122(1)(a))	169
4.12.3 Good faith use of a sign (s 122(1)(b))	169
4.12.4 Good faith used to indicate purpose (s 122(1)(c))	170
4.12.5 Use of trade mark for comparative advertising (s 122(1)(d))	171
4.12.6 Exercising right to use trade mark (s 122(1)(e))	171
4.12.7 Defendant may obtain registration of similar trade mark (s 122(1)(f))	171
4.12.8 Non-infringement due to condition or limitation (s 122(1)(g))	172
4.12.9 Disclaimers (s 122(1)(h))	173
4.13 Trade mark applied by or with consent of registered owner	173
4.14 Prior continuous use defence (s 124)	174
4.15 No damages for infringement during non-use period (s 127)	174
4.16 Remedies	174
4.17 Assignment of trade marks	175
4.17.1 Process of assignment	176
4.17.2 Assignment of certification trade marks	177
4.17.3 Assignment of collective trade marks	177
4.17.4 Assignment of defensive trade marks	177
4.18 Licensing of trade marks	177
4.18.1 Quality control	179
4.18.2 Financial control	179
4.18.3 Other forms of control	180
4.18.4 Franchising	180
4.18.5 Assignment of licences	181
4.19 Voluntary recording of interests and claims	181
4.20 International treaty obligations	182
5 Copyright: introduction	184
5.1 Introduction	184
5.2 Justifications	186
5.2.1 Utilitarian-based arguments	186
5.2.2 Natural rights	188
5.3 History	189
5.4 International influences	196
5.4.1 The Berne Convention (1886)	196
5.4.2 The Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) (1952)	197
5.4.3 The Rome Convention (1961)	197
5.4.4 GATT (1947) and TRIPS (1994)	197
5.4.5 The WIPO internet treaties (1996)	198
5.4.6 Australia–USA Free Trade Agreement 2004 (AUSFTA)	198
5.4.7 Future international reforms	199
6 Subsistence of copyright	202
6.1 Introduction	202
6.2 Subject matter	203
6.2.1 Works	203
6.2.2 Subject matter other than works (Part IV)	215
6.3 Recorded in material form	217
6.4 Connected to Australia	218
6.5 ‘Originality’	220
6.5.1 Original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works	220
6.5.2 Subject matter other than works	227
7 Authorship and first ownership, nature of the rights and duration	229
7.1 Introduction	229
7.2 ‘Authorship’ and first ownership	229
7.2.1 Who is the author?	230
7.2.2 Joint authorship	232
7.2.3 Works with no known author	233
7.3 Exceptions to first ownership	233
7.3.1 Works created by employees	234
7.3.2 Works created by journalists	236
7.3.3 Commissioned works	236
7.3.4 Crown copyright	237
7.4 Nature of the rights	238
7.4.1 The right of reproduction	239
7.4.2 The right to publish the work	241
7.4.3 The right to perform the work in public	241
7.4.4 The right to communicate the work to the public	242
7.4.5 The right to make an adaptation of the work	244
7.4.6 The right of commercial rental	244
7.5 Technological protection measures	245
7.5.1 Anti-circumvention	246
7.5.2 Rights management information	252
7.5.3 Unauthorised access to encoded broadcasts	253
7.6 Duration	253
8 Exploitation, infringement and defences	255
8.1 Introduction	255
8.2 Exploitation	255
8.2.1 Assignment	256
8.2.2 Licences	257
8.2.3 Collective administration	264
8.3 Infringement	267
8.3.1 Direct infringement	268
8.3.2 Indirect infringement	285
8.4 Relief for copyright infringement	292
8.4.1 Damages	292
8.4.2 Innocent infringement	293
8.4.3 Conversion or detention	294
8.4.4 Groundless threats to sue	294
8.4.5 Criminal offences	295
8.5 Defences and limitations	297
8.5.1 Fair dealing	297
8.5.2 Time-shifting	308
8.5.3 Format-shifting	309
8.5.4 Exceptions for archives and libraries	311
8.5.5 Educational uses	313
8.5.6 Artistic works	314
8.5.7 Computer programs	315
8.5.8 Temporary and incidental reproductions	316
8.5.9 Legal materials	317
8.5.10 Government uses	317
8.5.11 Reading or recitation in public	318
8.5.12 Sound recordings	318
8.5.13 Films	318
8.5.14 Public interest	319
8.5.15 Contracting out of the defences	319
8.5.16 Future reforms	321
9 Moral rights, performers’ rights, artist's resale rights, and other rights	322
9.1 Introduction	322
9.2 Moral rights	322
9.2.1 The right of attribution	324
9.2.2 The right of integrity	325
9.2.3 The right to object to false attribution	327
9.2.4 Limits on moral rights	328
9.2.5 Consent	330
9.2.6 Remedies for infringement of moral rights	332
9.2.7 Reform: Indigenous communal moral rights?	332
9.3 Performers’ rights	333
9.3.1 Performers’ moral rights	336
9.4 Artist's resale rights	338
9.5 Circuit layouts	341
9.5.1 Nature and scope of circuit layouts	342
9.5.2 Subsistence	343
9.5.3 Exclusive rights	343
9.5.4 Ownership	344
9.5.5 Exploitation	344
9.5.6 Duration	344
9.5.7 Infringement	345
9.5.8 Exceptions and defences	345
9.5.9 Remedies	347
9.5.10 Overlap with copyright and design protection?	347
9.6 Public and educational lending rights	348
10 Designs	349
10.1 Introduction	349
10.2 History	349
10.3 The registration process	351
10.3.1 Who can apply?	351
10.3.2 Requirements of the application	352
10.3.3 Request for registration or publication	353
10.3.4 Publication	353
10.3.5 Registration	353
10.3.6 Priority date	354
10.3.7 Duration	354
10.3.8 Post-registration examination	354
10.4 Criteria for protection	355
10.4.1 Meaning of ‘design’	355
10.4.2 ‘New’ and ‘distinctive’	358
10.5 Ownership	360
10.6 Rights	360
10.7 Infringement	360
10.7.1 Infringement under the 1906 Act	360
10.7.2 Infringement under the 2003 Designs Act	361
10.8 Exceptions	364
10.8.1 The spare parts defence	364
10.8.2 Consent and parallel importation	366
10.8.3 Crown use and supply	366
10.9 Remedies	367
10.9.1 Unjustified threats	367
10.10 Copyright–design overlap	368
10.10.1 Registration of a corresponding design	369
10.10.2 Industrial application of a corresponding design	370
11 Equitable doctrine of breach of confidence	372
11.1 Introduction	372
11.2 Origins of equitable doctrine of breach of confidence	374
11.3 The elements of the action	376
11.3.1 Must be able to identify the information with specificity	377
11.3.2 Information must have the necessary quality of confidence	377
11.3.3 Information given or received to import an obligation of confidence	382
11.3.4 Unauthorised use or disclosure of the information	386
11.3.5 The scope of the obligation	388
11.3.6 The need to show detriment	389
11.3.7 Reasonableness of obtaining a remedy	390
11.4 How long does the obligation last?	391
11.4.1 Express contractual obligations	391
11.4.2 Equitable obligations	391
11.4.3 Disclosure by the confider	391
11.4.4 Disclosure by the confidant	392
11.4.5 Disclosure by third party after confidence is imposed	392
11.5 Entitlement	393
11.6 Special circumstances: during employment	394
11.7 Special circumstances: after employment	396
11.7.1 Contract	396
11.7.2 Equitable principles of confidence	398
11.8 Defences: public interest in disclosure	400
11.8.1 Background	400
11.8.2 Nature of the defence in Australia	401
11.8.3 Disclosure must be to proper authorities	403
11.9 Remedies	403
11.9.1 General	403
11.9.2 The springboard principle	404
11.9.3 Damages	405
11.10 Relationship between confidential information and patents	406
11.11 Relationship between confidential information and copyright	407
11.12 International dimensions	407
12 Patents for inventions: introduction	409
12.1 What is a patent for invention?	409
12.2 Origins of patent protection	410
12.3 Development of patent law in Australia	412
12.4 Rationales of patent protection	413
12.5 Types of patent	414
12.5.1 Standard and innovation patents	414
12.5.2 Patents of addition	414
12.5.3 Selection patents	414
12.5.4 Combination patents	414
12.6 Types of application	415
12.6.1 Convention applications	415
12.6.2 PCT applications	415
12.6.3 Divisional applications	417
12.7 Procedure for obtaining a standard patent	417
12.7.1 The application	417
12.7.2 Pre-examination	418
12.7.3 Examination	419
12.7.4 Acceptance and publication	419
12.7.5 Opposition	420
12.7.6 Re-examination	421
12.7.7 Grant	422
12.8 Processing an application for an innovation patent	422
12.9 Patent term	424
12.10 Extension of term of standard patents for pharmaceuticals	424
12.10.1 The application	424
12.10.2 Calculation of the term of extension	426
12.11 Requirement of claims to have a priority date	426
12.11.1 Complete applications	427
12.11.2 Convention applications	427
12.11.3 PCT applications	427
12.11.4 Fair basing of claim on priority document	427
12.12 The role of priority dates	429
12.13 Withdrawal and lapsing of applications and ceasing of patents	430
12.14 International aspects	431
12.14.1 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property 1883	431
12.14.2 TRIPS (1994)	432
12.14.3 The Budapest Treaty 1997	432
12.14.4 European Patent Convention (1973)	433
12.14.5 Patent Law Treaty (2000)	434
12.14.6 Australia–USA Free Trade Agreement 2004	434
12.15 Transitional provisions	435
13 Patents for inventions: validity	436
13.1 Statutory requirements	436
13.2 A two-tier system	437
13.3 The concept of invention	438
13.4 Manner of manufacture	439
13.4.1 Time at which manner of manufacture is raised	439
13.4.2 Background to the meaning of ‘manner of manufacture’	439
13.4.3 NRDC v Commissioner of Patents: meaning of ‘manner of manufacture’	441
13.4.4 Application of NRDC principles to expand scope and remove classes of unpatentable inventions	442
13.4.5 Business methods and systems	444
13.4.6 Computer programs	446
13.4.7 Genes and biological materials	447
13.4.8 Methods of medical treatment for humans	448
13.4.9 Discoveries, ideas and other unpatentable subject matter	450
13.4.10 Reform proposals	452
13.5 Generally inconvenient	452
13.6 Novelty	454
13.6.1 Introduction	454
13.6.2 Time at which novelty is raised	455
13.6.3 Statutory requirements: overview	455
13.6.4 Prior art base	457
13.6.5 Person skilled in the relevant art	459
13.6.6 Time at which to construe and read documentary disclosures	459
13.6.7 The meaning of ‘publicly available’	460
13.6.8 Test for ‘anticipation’	461
13.6.9 Prohibition on ‘mosaics’	464
13.6.10 Publicly available information disregarded: disclosure with consent	465
13.6.11 Publicly available information that is disregarded: non-consensual disclosure	469
13.6.12 Novelty by way of selection	469
13.6.13 Relationship with inventive step and innovative step	471
13.7 Inventive and innovative step: principles	471
13.7.1 Introduction	471
13.7.2 Time at which inventive or innovative step is raised	472
13.7.3 Statutory requirements: overview	473
13.7.4 Inventive step: prior art base and relevant information for purposes of comparison	474
13.7.5 Innovative step: prior art base and relevant information for purposes of comparison	476
13.7.6 Innovative step: level of advance and assessment	477
13.7.7 Summary of differences	478
13.8 Inventive step: elements in the assessment	479
13.8.1 Obvious: very plain	479
13.8.2 Person skilled in the relevant art	479
13.8.3 Common general knowledge	481
13.8.4 Information a skilled person would be expected to ascertain, understand and regard as relevant	482
13.8.5 Standard required: scintilla of inventiveness	483
13.8.6 Expert evidence ‘tainted by hindsight’	483
13.8.7 Secondary factors to assist assessment of obviousness	484
13.8.8 Objection to reliance upon hindsight	486
13.9 Threshold quality of ‘inventiveness’	486
13.9.1 The test	486
13.9.2 Assessment of the threshold quality of ‘inventiveness’	488
13.9.3 Innovation patents and the threshold test	490
13.10 Utility	490
13.10.1 General	490
13.10.2 Meaning of ‘useful’	491
13.11 Secret use	492
13.11.1 General	492
13.11.2 Rationale	493
13.11.3 The relationship with novelty	493
13.11.4 The meaning of ‘secret’	494
13.11.5 The meaning of ‘use’	494
13.11.6 Use for reasonable trial or experiment only	495
13.11.7 Use occurring solely in a confidential disclosure	496
13.11.8 Patentee use for any purpose other than trade or commerce	497
13.11.9 Use on behalf of the government	498
13.11.10Onus of proof	498
13.11.11Grace period	498
13.12 Express exclusions from patentability	499
13.12.1 Human beings and biological processes for their generation	499
13.12.2 Plants and animals	499
13.12.3 Contrary to law	500
13.12.4 Mere mixtures	501
13.12.5 International obligations	501
13.13 Internal requirements for patent specifications: s 40	502
13.13.1 Evolution of the specification and function of claims	502
13.13.2 Statutory provisions for internal requirements for patent specifications	503
13.13.3 Construction of specification for s 40 purposes	504
13.13.4 Stages for consideration of s 40 requirements	504
13.13.5 The relationship of s 40 and other grounds of invalidity	505
13.13.6 Provisional specification must describe invention: s 40(1)	505
13.13.7 Complete specification must provide sufficient description and best method of performance: s 40(2)	506
13.13.8 End with claims defining invention: s 40(2)(b), (c)	510
13.13.9 Claims must be clear and succinct: s 40(3)	510
13.13.10Claims must be fairly based: s 40(3)	511
13.13.11Consistory clause and fair basing	512
13.13.12Comparison with fair basis assessment: priority dates	513
13.13.13Claims must relate to one invention only: s 40(4)	514
13.14 Deposit requirements for micro-organisms	514
13.14.1 General provisions	514
13.14.2 The meaning of ‘experimental purposes’	515
14 Patents for inventions: allocation of rights and ownership, the Register and dealings	517
14.1 Entitlement to grant	517
14.1.1 Criteria for inventorship	519
14.1.2 Entitled to have patent assigned to person: s 15(1)(b)	521
14.1.3 Derives title to invention from inventor: s 15(1)(c)	521
14.2 Ownership and co-ownership	522
14.2.1 The notion of co-ownership	522
14.2.2 Rights of co-owners	523
14.2.3 Directions to co-owners	524
14.2.4 Grant of patent	524
14.2.5 Proprietary rights in the patent	524
14.3 Employee inventions	525
14.3.1 Express provisions in the employment contract	525
14.3.2 Implied duty to assign inventions: the duty of good faith	526
14.3.3 Fiduciary duties	529
14.4 Crown use of patents for inventions	530
14.4.1 Introduction	530
14.4.2 Exploitation of inventions by the Crown	531
14.4.3 Scope of the exploitation right	532
14.4.4 For the services of the Commonwealth or a State	532
14.4.5 Obligations of the Crown	533
14.4.6 Procedures available to a patentee	534
14.4.7 Remuneration and terms for exploitation	534
14.4.8 Exploitation of invention to cease under court order	534
14.4.9 Supply of products by Commonwealth to foreign countries	534
14.4.10 Acquisition of inventions or patents by the Commonwealth	535
14.4.11 Assignments of inventions to the Commonwealth	535
14.5 Dealings with inventions	535
14.5.1 General principles	535
14.5.2 Assignments	536
14.5.3 Exclusive licences	536
14.5.4 Non-exclusive and sole licences	537
14.6 Compulsory licences	538
14.6.1 Application	538
14.6.2 Effect of compulsory licence on other patents	539
14.6.3 Operation of the order	540
14.6.4 Remuneration payable	540
14.6.5 Revocation	540
14.6.6 Other circumstances for compulsory licence	541
14.6.7 International requirements	541
14.7 Contracts	542
14.7.1 Void conditions	542
14.7.2 Conditions that are not void	544
14.7.3 Defence to infringement proceedings	544
14.7.4 Termination of contract after patent ceases to be in force	545
14.8 The Register and official documents	545
14.8.1 Contents of the Register	545
14.8.2 Inspection and access to the Register	547
14.8.3 False entries	547
14.8.4 Evidence	547
14.8.5 Power of patentee to deal with patent	547
15 Patents for inventions: exploitation, infringement and revocation	549
15.1 The role of the patent specification	549
15.2 General principles for construction of patent specification	550
15.3 Claim construction	553
15.3.1 Introduction	553
15.3.2 ‘Pith and marrow’	554
15.3.3 Purposive construction	555
15.4 Exclusive rights of the patentee	558
15.4.1 The nature of exclusive rights	558
15.4.2 The concept of an implied licence on sale	559
15.4.3 No grant of positive rights	559
15.5 Direct infringement	559
15.5.1 Exclusive right to make a patented product	560
15.5.2 The exclusive right to use	562
15.5.3 The exclusive right to keep	562
15.5.4 The exclusive right to import the invention	564
15.5.5 The concept of parallel importation	565
15.5.6 Authorisation	567
15.5.7 Liability as a joint tortfeasor through ‘common design’ or ‘procurement’	569
15.6 Contributory infringement	570
15.6.1 Introduction	570
15.6.2 Section 117(1): supply of a ‘product’	571
15.6.3 Section 117(2): infringing uses	573
15.6.4 Section 117(2)(b): not a staple commercial product	574
15.6.5 Section 117(2)(b): supplier had reason to believe the person would put it to that use	575
15.6.6 Section 117(2)(c)	575
15.6.7 Infringement of a product patent by supply of component parts	576
15.7 Misleading and deceptive conduct	577
15.8 Defences to infringement	577
15.8.1 Use in or on foreign vessels, aircraft or vehicles	578
15.8.2 Prior use of an invention: s 119	578
15.8.3 Acts for obtaining regulatory approval of pharmaceuticals	582
15.8.4 Private acts	583
15.8.5 Experimental and research use	584
15.9 Infringement proceedings	586
15.10 Relief for infringement	587
15.11 Non-infringement declarations	587
15.12 Unjustified threats of infringement proceedings	588
15.13 Revocation of patents	589
15.13.1 Statutory provisions	589
15.13.2 Lack of entitlement	590
15.13.3 Fraud and false suggestion or misrepresentation	592
15.13.4 Litigation: parties to proceedings	594
15.14 Jurisdiction and powers of courts	594
15.14.1 Jurisdiction of the Federal Court	594
15.14.2 Jurisdiction of other prescribed courts	595
15.14.3 Prosecution for an offence against the Act	595
15.14.4 Appeals to the Federal Court	595
16 Plant breeder's rights	597
16.1 Introduction	597
16.2 Plant breeding: technical background	598
16.3 Subject matter of PBR	599
16.4 Registrability	599
16.4.1 The variety has a breeder	600
16.4.2 The variety is distinct	601
16.4.3 The variety is uniform	602
16.4.4 The variety is stable	603
16.4.5 Variety has not been exploited or only recently exploited	603
16.4.6 Time at which the variety must be DUS	605
16.5 PBR applications	605
16.5.1 Right to apply for PBR	606
16.5.2 Form of application for PBR	607
16.5.3 Priority dates	608
16.5.4 Acceptance and rejection	608
16.5.5 Variation of the application after acceptance	609
16.5.6 Application after acceptance: substantive examination and test-growing requirements	609
16.5.7 Objections	610
16.5.8 Access to the application and any objection	611
16.5.9 Status of accepted applications	611
16.5.10 Deposit of propagating material	611
16.6 Grant	612
16.6.1 Requirements	612
16.6.2 Entry of details in the Register	613
16.6.3 Effect of grant of PBR	613
16.6.4 Term of protection	613
16.7 Rights in PBR	614
16.7.1 General nature of PBR in propagating material	614
16.7.2 Extension beyond propagating material: essentially derived varieties	615
16.7.3 Extension beyond propagating material: certain dependent plant varieties	617
16.7.4 Extension beyond propagating material: harvested material	617
16.7.5 Extension beyond propagating material: products obtained from harvested material	620
16.7.6 Concept of exhaustion of rights	620
16.8 Limitations on the breeder's rights	621
16.8.1 Private, experimental or breeding purposes	622
16.8.2 Farmer's rights	623
16.8.3 Breeder's rights in harvested material and products from crops grown with farm-saved seed	626
16.8.4 Other restrictions on rights	626
16.8.5 Reasonable public access	627
16.9 Ownership and co-ownership	628
16.10 Exploiting PBR: licensing and other forms	628
16.10.1 Assignment of PBR	628
16.10.2 Licences	628
16.11 Revocation of PBR	629
16.12 Surrender of PBR	630
16.13 Infringement of rights	630
16.13.1 What amounts to infringement	630
16.13.2 Exemptions from infringement	631
16.13.3 Prior user rights	631
16.14 Enforcement of rights	632
16.14.1 Actions for infringement	632
16.14.2 Declarations as to non-infringement	632
16.14.3 Jurisdiction	633
16.14.4 Offences and conduct by directors, servants and agents	633
16.15 The Register	633
16.16 Remedies	634
16.17 Transitional provisions	634
16.18 Relationships between PBR and other intellectual property regimes	635
16.18.1 PBR and patents	635
16.18.2 PBR and trade marks	635
16.19 Other international conventions	636
17 Remedies and miscellaneous issues	637
17.1 Introduction	637
17.2 Pretrial remedies	637
17.2.1 Anton Piller orders	638
17.2.2 Representative orders	640
17.2.3 Interlocutory injunctions	640
17.3 Permanent injunctions	642
17.4 Groundless threats	643
17.5 Damages	643
17.6 Account of profits	644
17.7 Criminal liability	646
17.8 Customs seizure	646
17.9 Jurisdiction	647
17.10 Intellectual property and freedom of competition	648
17.10.1 Per se prohibitions	649
17.10.2 Rule of reason prohibitions	649
17.10.3 Exemptions under s 51(3)	651
17.11 Security over intellectual property	651
Index	653