|
Foreword
|
xiii |
|
Acknowledgements
|
xv |
|
Select list of abbreviations
|
xviii |
|
Table of cases
|
xx |
|
Table of treaties
|
xxxiii |
|
Part I: The Framework
|
1 |
|
1. Structures of the international legal system
|
3 |
|
1.1 Introduction
|
3 |
|
1.2 Methodology: a rules-based approach
|
7 |
|
1.3 The engagement of individuals in the international legal system: structural issues
|
10 |
|
(a) Prelude: differing legal structures in the early period
|
10 |
|
(b) The long nineteenth century
|
13 |
|
(c) The inter-war period
|
16 |
|
(d) The post-1945 international legal system
|
26 |
|
1.4 International legal personality as the measure of engagement in the international legal system
|
29 |
|
(a) Development of the doctrine of subjects: the Reparations Opinion
|
30 |
|
(b) Sui generis subjects of international law
|
32 |
|
(c) The individual as a ‘subject’ of international law
|
36 |
|
1.5 Challenges to the centrality of states in the international legal system: alternative approaches
|
38 |
|
(a) Positivism in its classical and modern forms
|
40 |
|
(b) Process approaches
|
42 |
|
(c) ‘Cosmopolitanism’
|
43 |
|
Part II: The Individual in International Law
|
45 |
|
2. The individual and international claims
|
47 |
|
2.1 Introduction
|
47 |
|
2.2 Doctrine and practice pre-1914
|
48 |
|
(a) Vattel’s articulation
|
49 |
|
(b) The practice
|
50 |
|
(i) Arbitration of specifically defined diplomatic protection claims
|
52 |
|
(ii) Claims tribunals and commissions
|
54 |
|
(A) Control of the claim
|
55 |
|
(B) Payment of awards
|
57 |
|
(C) Binding effect of the decision on an inter-state basis
|
58 |
|
(D) Standing before the International Prize Court and the Central American Court of Justice
|
60 |
|
(c) Conclusions
|
62 |
|
2.3 Doctrine and practice in the inter-war period
|
65 |
|
(a) The development of doctrine
|
65 |
|
(b) The practice of international claims tribunals
|
71 |
|
(i) Mixed arbitral tribunals after the First World War
|
72 |
|
(A) The mixed arbitral tribunals under the Peace Treaties
|
72 |
|
(B) The US Mixed Claims Commissions
|
73 |
|
(C) The Upper Silesian Mixed Commission and Arbitral Tribunal
|
74 |
|
(ii) Mexican Claims Commissions 1923–1932
|
77 |
|
(c) Conclusions
|
83 |
|
2.4 Diplomatic protection and individual claims after 1945
|
85 |
|
(a) The development of doctrine
|
85 |
|
(i) Diplomatic protection
|
85 |
|
(ii) Individual rights
|
94 |
|
(b) International claims tribunals and commissions
|
97 |
|
(i) Post-Second World War commissions and tribunals
|
97 |
|
(ii) The Iran–US Claims Tribunal
|
98 |
|
(iii) The UN Compensation Commission
|
101 |
|
(c) Investment treaty arbitration
|
103 |
|
(d) Conclusions
|
119 |
|
2.5 Conclusions: the position of the individual relative to international claims
|
120 |
|
Appendix IArbitration of diplomatic protection claims 1794–1914
|
124 |
|
Appendix IIInternational claims tribunals and commissions 1794–1914
|
134 |
|
Appendix IIIInternational claims tribunals and commissions 1919–1939
|
162 |
|
3. The individual in international humanitarian law
|
176 |
|
3.1 Introduction
|
176 |
|
3.2 The individual in international armed conflict
|
177 |
|
(a) Regulation of international war pre-1914
|
177 |
|
(b) Developments in the inter-war period
|
180 |
|
(c) The individual in international armed conflict after 1945
|
181 |
|
(i) The 1949 Geneva Conventions
|
182 |
|
(ii) Additional Protocol I of 1977
|
189 |
|
(iii) Customary international humanitarian law
|
191 |
|
(iv) International human rights law applicable in international armed conflict
|
193 |
|
3.3 The individual in internal armed conflict
|
196 |
|
(a) Regulation of civil war pre-1914
|
198 |
|
(b) The inter-war period
|
206 |
|
(c) The individual in internal armed conflict after 1945
|
208 |
|
(i) Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions
|
208 |
|
(ii) Additional Protocol II
|
213 |
|
(iii) Customary international humanitarian law
|
219 |
|
(iv) International human rights law applicable in non-international armed conflict
|
222 |
|
3.4 Conclusions: the position of the individual in international humanitarian law
|
224 |
|
4. The individual in international criminal law
|
229 |
|
4.1 Introduction
|
229 |
|
4.2 Individual responsibility before 1919
|
230 |
|
4.3 The inter-war period: the Kaiser and the Leipzig trials
|
234 |
|
4.4 Individual responsibility after 1945
|
241 |
|
(a) Post-Second World War prosecutions
|
241 |
|
(i) The Nuremberg Tribunal
|
241 |
|
(ii) The Tokyo Tribunal
|
249 |
|
(iii) Control Council Law No. 10 trials and military commissions in the Pacific
|
251 |
|
(b) The ‘Nuremberg Principles’
|
253 |
|
(c) Development of substantive international criminal law in the United Nations
|
258 |
|
(d) International criminal tribunals and courts
|
260 |
|
(i) Ad hoc international tribunals
|
261 |
|
(ii) The International Criminal Court
|
267 |
|
(iii) International crimes before ‘hybrid’ and domestic courts
|
271 |
|
4.5 Conclusions: the position of the individual in international criminal law
|
274 |
|
5. The individual in international human rights law
|
278 |
|
5.1 Introduction
|
278 |
|
5.2 Antecedents: the case of slavery
|
279 |
|
5.3 Protection of individuals during the inter-war period
|
282 |
|
(a) Minorities
|
282 |
|
(b) Inhabitants of mandated territories
|
287 |
|
(c) Refugees
|
291 |
|
(d) The International Labour Organisation
|
294 |
|
(e) Conclusions
|
295 |
|
5.4 International protection of human rights after 1945
|
296 |
|
(a) Human rights rhetoric during the Second World War
|
296 |
|
(b) Preparation for an international bill of rights
|
299 |
|
(c) The United Nations Charter: a promise postponed
|
301 |
|
(d) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
|
306 |
|
(e) From moral imperative to legal articulation: state obligations, individual rights and international enforcement in the European system
|
307 |
|
(f) Human rights and state obligations in the UN system
|
312 |
|
(i) Subject-specific conventions
|
313 |
|
(ii) The International Covenants
|
315 |
|
(iii) Declarations of specific rights
|
320 |
|
(iv) Special procedures before the Human Rights Commission (now the Human Rights Council)
|
321 |
|
(g) Customary international human rights law: from soft to hard law?
|
322 |
|
(h) Jus cogens human rights norms
|
326 |
|
(i) The evolution of enforcement mechanisms: the regional systems
|
327 |
|
(j) Conclusions
|
335 |
|
5.5 Conclusions: the position of the individual in international human rights law
|
337 |
|
Part III: Reassessing the Framework
|
341 |
|
6. Reflections on the structures of the international legal system
|
343 |
|
6.1 Introduction
|
343 |
|
6.2 Historical development of the position of the individual in the international legal system
|
343 |
|
(a) The nineteenth century international legal system
|
343 |
|
(b) The inter-war period
|
346 |
|
(c) The post-1945 international legal system
|
349 |
|
6.3 International legal personality as the measure of engagement: the case of the individual
|
353 |
|
(a) ‘Subjects’ versus ‘objects’
|
353 |
|
(b) Locating individuals: rights, obligations and capacities
|
358 |
|
(c) Moving from the actor to the action? The notion of international law relationships
|
363 |
|
6.4 Reflections on structural transition in the international legal system: the case of the individual
|
365 |
|
(a) Relative openness and flexibility of the system
|
365 |
|
(b) Forces for structural change: solutions above theories
|
367 |
|
(c) States in the international legal system
|
369 |
|
Bibliography
|
373 |
|
Index
|
394 |
